The epic of gilgamesh by stephen mitchell Free Essay Example, 1250 words

Maybe Enkidu is purposely avoiding this discussion as to not excite Gilgamesh since he is already so fearless. Enkidu tries to convince that man is a weak and feeble creature through various exhibitions, like: â€Å"But how can any man dare to enter†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å"Hasn’t he put Humbaba there to terrify men? † (Mitchell, 93). This shows how Enkidu is uncertain of the strength and qualities of man and, like his gods, undermines and questions man’s abilities. Enkidu tries to explain how any man who faces the Humbaba will be overwhelmed by fear, which helps to highlight the fact that Enkidu considers mankind to be frail and coward (Mitchell, 93). Even though it is only mankind that Enkidu is skeptical about, he tries to convince Gilgamesh to forgo the quest in the following words: â€Å"Who among men or gods could defeat him? † (Mitchell, 93). This shows that Enkidu is extremely desperate about not going on the quest as he is sure of the overpowering qualities of the Humbaba. Enkidu seems to consider humans as inferior and helpless beings against the gods an d their will. We will write a custom essay sample on The epic of gilgamesh by stephen mitchell or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now The way he tries to convince Gilgamesh to not go on the quest as the creature arranged by gods will overpower them and they will fail is a clear indication of the lack of faith he has in himself and his accomplice. There seems to contradictions in Enkidus description of the Humbaba when he says that the Humbaba has been put in the jungle to terrify men. He never at any point during the description of the beast mention that it will kill anyone but he very discretely emphasizes that it is so terrifying that its rivals are seized with fear when they confront it. Enkidu mentions that the Humbaba’s rivals will lose because fear will be their main hindrance. He is constantly ignoring how Gilgamesh is a gallant character and is not afraid of death or facing gods for what is right. Enkidu is ignoring the fact that it might be Gilgamesh’s bravery that might allow them to overpower and kill the Humbaba. Enkidu is constantly contradicting his statements. At one point in the conversation he says the beast is terrifying and no man stands a chance against him, but he doesn’t mention that Humbaba has killed anyone. Then Enkidu contradicts his statements when he says that Gilgamesh is no challenge to the creature. This means that Enkidu is saying that the beast will be able to overwhelm and kill Gilgamesh. It is clear that Enkidu has no solid stance to stop the brave and enthusiastic Gilgamesh from battling the creature. Enkidu does seem to prove his point as he again and again reminds that the Humbaba is the god, Enlil, so fighting him would mean clear opposition of the god.

Taking a Look at Myelodysplasia Syndrome - 1160 Words

Myelodysplasia syndrome (MDS), is a type of disease that is associated with abnormal cells in the blood and bone marrow. Patients with the disease commonly have immature stem cells which result in unhealthy progenies such as platelets, red and white blood cells. There are different types of MDS, which are analyzed by certain changes in the blood or bone marrow. MDS can be more commonly found in Men in their 60’s seeing how the chances of myelodysplasia syndrome increases with age. Genetics also play a role in the occurrence of MDS. It can be passed down from parents to offspring that have certain mutated genes. People with Down syndrome, Fanconi anemia, Shwachman-Diamond, and Kostmann syndrome have an increased chance of developing this disease [1]. Previous patients who have been treated with cancer that have gone through radiation and chemotherapy have increased the risk of developing MDS. MDS is a type of bone marrow disorder that may develop into acute leukemia. This has been linked to past radiation exposure. The amount and dosage of radiation that may reach to bone marrows may increase their chance of developing MDS. Environmental risk factors that increase the risk of contracting MDS, include high doses of radiation from long-term exposure to benzene, alkylating agents and ionizing radiation. Exposure to metals and chemicals such as lead, mercury, tobacco smoke, pesticide, fertilizers and solvents also increases this risk. Lifestyle choices can be a

Haiti Development Free Essays

Why is Haiti underdeveloped? (15) Haiti is a Caribbean country located on the island of Hispaniola. It is the poorest country in the western hemisphere with its GDP at just $1, 200. The country has suffered through political violence throughout its history and was struck by an earthquake with a magnitude of 7. We will write a custom essay sample on Haiti: Development or any similar topic only for you Order Now 0 in 2010. These two major events during Haiti’s history left the country in ruins and since Haiti has not seemed to recover. Throughout the course of this essay I will go into further detail as to why Haiti is extremely underdeveloped. Haiti has a very low life expectancy at 62 years in comparison to the UK which is 80 years. This shows that between these two countries there are major differences between factors that influence life expectancy. In comparison to the UK, in Haiti poorer medical care is received by the population and this also shows how bad the standard of living is in Haiti. In Haiti, the total fertility rate is 3. 07 babied per woman whereas in the UK its 1. 91. This shows that in Haiti the emancipation of women is lower which means the country cannot develop. Another major social fact is that 52. 9% of Haiti’s population is literate. Half the population are unable to read or write and this means that they cannot get good jobs or look after their families better and move them out of poverty because they lack a huge skill. These social factors stop Haiti from developing. Haiti has suffered mass political instability over the years. The brutal dictatorships of the physician Francois and his son left tens of thousands of people killed during their 29-year rule. Since then the US intervened and forced Haiti to return to a constitutional government in 1994. However there were allegations of electoral irregularities, ongoing extra-judicial killings, torture and brutality. A bloody rebellion plus pressure from US and France forced the President Mr. Aristicide out of the country. In the present day Haiti is still plagued by violent confrontations between rival gangs and political groups. The UN has described the human rights situation as â€Å"catastrophic†. This political instability over the years is a massive obstacle to Haiti developing. However the biggest factor as to why Haiti is so underdeveloped is the environmental factors. Haiti lies in a region prone to earthquakes and because of its tropical climate it suffers many tropical storms. This leaves areas with severe deforestation and vulnerable to flooding. Haiti is not equipped to deal with these natural disasters. In January 2010 Haiti was struck by an earthquake, 7. 0 on the Richter scale, this was the country’s worst earthquake in over 200 years. Tens of thousands of people were killed and this led to mass international aid being received by Haiti. A year later and Haiti is still struggling to recover from this earthquake. This shows exactly how underdeveloped Haiti is because they are constantly being hit with natural disasters but they are ill-equipped at dealing with them. This is a huge obstacle to development because it means that money cannot be spent on things that make a country more developed such as education or business. Also, following the earthquake, the economy is still recovering. The damage to Port-au-Prince caused the country’s GDP to decrease by an estimated 8%. Haiti was ranked 145 of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations human development index with 57. 3% of the population being deprived of at least 3 of the HDI poverty measures. Most Haitians live on less than $2 a day. This fact is crucial as to why Haiti is underdeveloped. This shows that as Haitians don’t have that much money they cannot afford for their children to go to school so more and more children are being born into poverty. Therefore these children can never leave poverty so the country cannot develop as the majority of the population is in poverty. In conclusion, Haiti is underdeveloped because of many social, political, economic and environmental reasons. However I think the most important factor as to why Haiti is so underdeveloped in the environmental factors. Haiti must spend money on taking care of natural disasters instead of factors that help a country to develop. So in my opinion the fact that Haiti receives a lot of natural disasters is stopping them from developing. How to cite Haiti: Development, Papers

Seneca Iroquois White Springs free essay sample

The sizes of these sites can sometimes be as large as settlements covering acres Of land. However archaeologists have now been using a surveying method that employs the use of multi-instrument geophysical scanning. Using this the archaeologist can help maintain budget and time constraints that may have been restricting progress. The Seneca settlement at (1688-1715 CE) the White Springs Site located in Geneva, NY is a site that covers a settlement size estimate of 1. 2-2. 75 ha. This paper reports on approximately five hectares of high-resolution, multi-instrument archaeologically surveys. This information allowed the archaeologist to study the layered, temporal intents of these maps; which allowed for visual survey without accessing the site physically. Using documents, excavation, and archaeologists to understand a historic Iroquois site.Limited excavation required non- invasive survey methods. Five hectares of ground-penetrating radar and magnetometer survey exposed Seneca-era features. The settlement was likely palisades and tightly packed, related to military pressure of the time. (Gerald- Little et al. July 201 2) One of the significant questions at White Springs relates to settlement layout and the possibility of a defensive palisade.Consideration of the social and cultural context in which White Springs was constructed contributes to better understanding of the choices that Seneca may have made in the process of constructing the town, as well as providing guidelines for archaeologically interpretation. (Alexander, 1998 p. 485) Between 1688 and 1715 the White Springs was the main community for the eastern Seneca Iroquois. This settlement is thought to have been established to reinforce the survival of the Seneca after a period of warfare with the French in 1687.Careful examination of the archaeological database and documentary sources have suggested that after he Danville invasion multiple Seneca communities consisting of two principal towns (Cannonading and Rochester Junction), at least two local satellite villages (including the Bell and Kirkwood sites), and three Seneca communities on the north shore of Lake Ontario (the Questioning, Attestation, and Continuation sites) united together into two large towns at the White Springs and Snyder-McClure sites (Jordan, 2010, up. 98-100; Conrad, 1981; Pollution, 1991; Wary, 1983).White Springs was formed to gather a larger number of people so that a greater defensive support system could be established. With this in mind it can be predicted that a defensive palisade would have built at the site. Historical and comparative research suggests the range of shap es that might have been used. Both Polygonal and ovoid palisades are seen at Iroquois sites before the extensive interaction with colonists. Oval shaped palisade seem to be the primary forms from 1000-CHOICE and the Polygonal palisades 1560-CEASE(Wary et al. , 1987).Both forms were used throughout the Iroquois people. Several excavations have been able to determine that palisades were constructed by twisting pointed posts into the subsoil (Ritchie and Funk, 1973, p. 03) and large posts were not buried immediately next to each other but interwoven with smaller branches (Hedonistic, 1971; Keener, 1 999; Ritchie and Funk, Although the Iroquois used platforms and towers that were built 1973). Into palisades (Keener, 1 999, p. 783), this type of design has not be found at any pre 1650 sites, suggesting that the design Was adopted from the Europeans. There are no known examples of European-style palisades from excavated or mapped Seneca sites constructed prior to White Springs, but there are at Huron, Onondaga, and Susquehanna sites (Gerard-little, 201 1, up. 55-60). The survey methodology at White Springs was built around 20 by 20 m squares, arranged on a grid system at 45 degree angle to the excavation grid. This alignment was based on the assumption that the Seneca-era features are along or are perpendicular to the sites dominant topographic lines that run roughly north south.The system oriented at an angle to this ensures that linear features such as palisade remnants are crossed by transects multiple times, and thus provides more robust evidence for the existence Of subsurface feature. Multiple instruments are also beneficial because they provide overlapping lines of evidence that can reveal ore about the character of the feature (Clay, 2001 ; Savage and Lealer, The White Springs survey was approximately 5 hector making this 2007). The largest survey of this resolution in the Northeast. GPO and magnetometer measure different physical and chemical properties that are significant in relation to data collection and interpretation (Gerald-Little et al. July 2012). GPO uses an antenna to project electromagnetic pulses into the ground at targeted frequencies; the travel time of the signal is affected by the dielectric permittivity of the underlying ground, allowing materials with divergent heartsickness to be distinguished from one another (Concern and Goodman, At the simplest level magnetometers measure the magnitude of 1997). The earths localized magnetic field in a survey area (Gerald-Little et al. July 2012).Solar activity, geology, iron content Of soils, can influence the Earths near surface local magnetic field. Anthropogenic factors influencing the magnetic signal of an area include burning, fired materials, presence of ferrous metal, and difference in the distribution of soil characteristics potentially created by activities involving fire and agricultural modific ation of oils (Spinal et al. , 2008; Scholar et al. , 1990). The results from this survey concluded that on the eastern side of the ridge, partway down the slope, a one hundred meter long north south feature appears in both the magnetometer and GPO data from 2009 (Rogers et al. 2006). Just inside the proposed eastern palisade wall, features forming two potential longhouses were recorded. These are visible in the magnetometer data and separated by less than five meters. They extend out of the survey area, so their full length is unknown. Because the only irreconcilabilitys visible attention longhouses inside the palisade are partial, there are limitations on the comparative data with other parts of the survey area. This information however, provides an understanding of the SÃ ©ances response to these turbulent times (Gerald-Little et al. July 2012).While the exact population of White Springs may be unknown, this speaks to the circumstances that lead to the construction of White Springs. Seneca balanced expediency of settlement construction with the safety of inhabitants. This broader understanding was made possible by the introduction of archaeologists to the project. The Lessons that were earned at White Springs included the use of: magnetometer and GPO, integration of excavation-based archaeological knowledge, historical documentation. Future work will profit from the gains made here with archaeologists.This source examines the correlations between the Europeans and the Africans slaves in America. There are references to first contact with the Native Americans. How these relationships failed and prospered how each side gained knowledge in structure of palisades, military maneuvers, and living in times of conflict. This allows to see the social structure and wartime architecture at the time of first contact. Spinal, C. Gaffing, A. Schmidt Magnetometer for Archaeologists, Geophysical Methods for Archaeology; Altair Press, Lankan (2008) This source covers the most widely used method for archaeological surveying.The history of magnetometers from their inception through todays state-of- the-art detectors, explain the physics behind the different types of sensors, and describe the most fruitful ways in which the technology can be employed. They also consider the theoretical and practical uses of magnetometer from for many archaeological periods and regions. The potential for and the problems associated with the use, display, and interpretation of buried emails. R. B. Clay Complementary geophysical tech unique: why two ways are always Better than one. Southeastern Archaeology, 20 (2001), up. 31-43 This source is demonstrated with a discussion of parallel uses of magnetometer and earth conductivity at historical and prehistoric sites in the south and Monmouth. Use of several technologies should be a goal, not reliance on one. Continued development of available technologies is somewhat reducing data collection costs, but the value of complementary data sets should still be the guiding principal in research design whenever possible. L. B. Concern, D. GoodmanGround-penetrating Radar: Introduction for Archaeologists Altair Press, Walnut Creek, CA (1997) This source provides one of the most promising methods of non-invasive archaeological exploration. Traditional archaeological excavation methods are sometimes daunting due to political or financial complications. Other times, an improperly planned dig can destroy or entirely overlook the artifacts being sought. In either case, ground-penetrating radar, or GPO, is an increasingly applicable technology, but one that few archaeologists truly understand.

Philosophy in Action William James Pragmatism Analysis free essay sample

The philosopher to propose this approach is William James. William James is most known for his book Pragmatism: A New Name for Same Old Ways of Thinking which just happens to be the first philosophical movement originated in the United States. This book is combination of a series of lectures given by James at various universities; James main focus in his lectures is the concept of Pragmatism which James refers to as a collaborated effort and credits Charles Sanders Price for the origin of the term Pragmatism and its leading principle: The Pragmatic Maxim.Pragmatism is a complex notion, it is something you practice. Another way to view it would be to refer to it as a method, more conclusively as The Pragmatic Method. The pragmatic method is primarily a method of settling metaphysical disputes that otherwise might be interminable. Is the world one or many? fated or free? material or spiritual? The pragmatic method in such cases is to try to interpret each notion by tracing its respective practical consequences. We will write a custom essay sample on Philosophy in Action: William James Pragmatism Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page James believes professional philosophy is caught in the deadlock of two opposing viewpoints which are rationalism and empiricism.And in order to display his points he describes two manifestations of opposing psychological types which are the tender mind and the tough mind. The tender mind individual is to be spiritual, religious and optimistic and the tough mind is scientific, skeptical and materialistic. If these two completely different individuals can apply rationalism and empiricism and attain a whole new perspective then James Pragmatic way can be accounted as credible. These act as building blocks to comprehend James Pragmatic Method.In order for a hilltops to function correctly, the scientific loyalty to facts and willingness, spirit Of adaptation and accommodation, religion and traditional views must all be accounted for. Although originated from the same concept, James Pragmatic Method is very distinguished from Pierces Pragmatic Maxim. Price claims pragmatism exposes the meaninglessness of most metaphysical disputes whereas James insists that pragmatism is a method of settling metaphysical disputes that otherwise might be interminable.Price actually delimits pragmatisms scope in attempt to completely disorient metaphysics as a whole but James introduces his version of pragmatism as a philosophy and a way to handle metaphysics than to avoid it. James prefers to locate the meaning of an idea within its practical consequences for behavior when Price limits the practical consequences of an idea to those functional proposals which it predicates of its object. But James designs his pragmatism to involve the given ideas pragmatic meaning its implications for the entirety of the believing subjects experience. One way to truly interpret James from Price is through James discussion of materialism and spiritualism. On a traditional perspective, materialism pertains to the idea that the only things that exist are matter and the laws that govern it. Keeping in mind that some sort of matter will always remain dominant in terms of existence, the laws of physical nature imply that the world as We know it will eventually dissolve away and materialists do accept this but still deny the ideas of spiritual entities, immortality and eternity.And so on the alternative hand, spiritualism claims that there has to be something more to the universe than just blind matter- something larger than life itself. Spiritualists claim there is in addition, another kind of substance referred to as spirit; the spirit was, is and will always remain eternal where as matter as the materialists claim will eventually dissolve. Therefore eternal things are superior to finite entities (as in our surroundings), thus spirit i s superior to matter.Although these arguments seem to leave me in awe, must not forget these are at the end of the day, claims. And claims cannot me analyzed into sensed experience because the evidence to back such claims is inconclusive. This is where the ragtime method kicks in and we can apply it by tracing the claims respective practical consequences. Now lets analyze this in a way James would have: if we were to imagine ourselves living at the very last moments of the universes existence, the dispute between materialism and spiritualism is idle.That is, if there literally were no future in which pragmatic differences in behavior and attitude could manifest, the two theories, in spite of their different-sounding names, mean exactly the same thing. James makes yet another point from this dispute, he says There can be no difference NNW. here that doesnt make a difference elsewhere.. . , insisting that every genuine metaphysical debate some practical issue, however conjectural and remote is always involved. Where no practical issue can be identified, debate is purely verbal. It again is a metaphysical dispute because observational evidence is insufficient to determine the question either way. The pragmatic conception of truth functions differently, it instead settles disputes based on observational evidence; James follows pragmatism is not only a method of dealing with metaphysics it is also a type of theory of truth. Take for example The Holocaust: is it true that it took place and that Hitler was able to murder six million Jews? Yes it is because there is evidence, witnesses and survivors to support it but of course this is simply common sense.A decidedly philosophical issue does emerge however with another example which is: if a tree fell in a forest where no one was there to witness it, did it really fall? The answer would be no because there is no evidence t o back it up. The theory of truth may also be applied to distinguishing a concept from a belief. A concept is something that is directly conceived, it is a general notion or an idea. A belief is confidence in the truth of existence of something not immediately susceptible to rigorous proof.James insists that a belief is actually essentially a proposal for action, and on a more concrete perspective it indeed is. A concept would be In order to survive one must consume food and water and sleep, this would be a concept because it will not change. Evidently, if one were to deprive himself of sleep and starve himself, he will eventually be deceased. Now a belief would be, Abortion is wrong and the world needs to be profile, this is a belief because there is no evidence to back it up. One will argue by bringing up the dilemma of rape, or teenage pregnancy In which cases abortion seems to be a logical option. But then again another will argue murder; it is murder because abortion kills potential life. One does not need much training in philosophy to comprehend and integrate James pragmatic views into their everyday life. Truth consists in simply the usefulness, expediency or profitableness of a proposition and this is often how we use he term pragmatic in our everyday language.James pragmatic views are not perfect and have definitely received their share of harsh criticism, but then again philosophy is a field where criticism will remain dominant. The objections made to James are rather ignorant; his views are to a certain extent more sophisticated than they may first appear and critics Often underestimated the subtleties of James position. Now that I am familiar with James pragmatic method and conception of truth, definitely will think twice about how to handle ce rtain predicaments.

Institutional Environment and Growth in Brazil Essay Example

Institutional Environment and Growth in Brazil Essay Example Institutional Environment and Growth in Brazil Paper Institutional Environment and Growth in Brazil Paper Accelerating the development of economic growth in a sustained way is therefore one of the most Important Issues In economics, Economists have long used a variety f approaches to shed light on why some countries experience faster growth than others. In the vast amount of literature on the subject there are three schools that stand out In particular. First, there Is a group of scholars that places geographical factors such as climate, transport cost and natural resources as the main explanatory factors. Recent writings by Jarred Diamond and Jeffery Sacks are important contributions In this paradigm (Diamond, 1997; Sacks, 2001 Second, there Is a faction that emphasizes international trade as a key to economic growth. Important intrusions to this market-integration view have been presented in the works of Franken Roomer (1999) and Dollar Kraal (2004). Finally, there Is a third group focusing on the explanatory power that institutions veil in this matter. This paper will follow in this tradition, as there seems to bee an increasingly pervasive concurrence among economists studying the phenomena that the development and quality of the institutional environment holds the key to prevailing patterns of sustained growth and prosperity around the world. Rich countries are those with sustained rule of law ND property rights, effective policies towards private enterprises and competition, the political system is stabile and effective, companies enjoys easy access to financing and superior tax regimes and there is a well functioning infrastructural system. Poor countries are those where the arrangements are nonexistent or ill formed. This approach suggests a somewhat casual relationship between institutional development and economic growth. This Implies that a poor country, which Is able to revise the rules of the game in the direction of better institutional environment, is keel to experience a lasting economic growth. The causality of this relationship has never Eden quotations (Oral, 2004; Houseman et al, 20050). In tens article we want to investigate the relationship between institutional development and economic growth further in order to enhance the understanding of the relationship. Is this really the end of all policy development and a manifestation of an institutions rule approach to economic development? Long run trends in the global economy suggest that emerging markets are the new drivers for global economic growth. Emerging markets can be defined as countries tit lower level of development than ELI, North America and Japan and high growth in recent years (Mining, 2007). This makes emerging markets countries useable as laboratories for trend research related to economic growth. Brazil, as a part of the BRICE countries, has for a long time been defined as an emerging market country. In spite of quite impressive reforms (Houseman et al, Bibb) the country has failed to show similar growth rates as China and India (DB, 2008). In this paper we therefore want to investigate how the economic growth in Brazil is related to the development in the institutional environment. Could the development and quality of the institutional environment in Brazil hold the key to understanding how to increase growth in the country? These notions has led to our research question, which is: How does the institutional environment affect the economic growth in Brazil? The deductive model In order to answer our research question we will apply the traditional deductive method of conducting research. First, we consider at a theoretical level the relationship between institutions and economic growth. Second, we build hypotheses on the basis of our theoretical framework. Third, we apply it to data. Finally, we deduct from the study. Our approach emphasizes quantitative data and is highly formalized. In this paper we will use the deductive model as proposed by Cesarean (1992). The model has 8 steps as illustrated below and largely corresponds to the structure of the paper. The steps are shown I a linear fashion, but in the reality the process is more dynamic. Literature review The concept of institutions and its influence on economic growth can be traced back to the functionalist perspective, which draws upon the ideas of August Comet (1852), Herbert Spencer (1851) and ?mile Druthers (1893). The functionalist approach is centered upon the argument that, if society is to exist, its members must make provision for certain functional requirements. Institutions are the principal structures where these critical tasks for social living are organized, directed and executed (Hughes et al. 2002). Institutions have been studied from several viewpoints and disciplines ranging from sociology, organizational psychology, to new institutional economics originating from the learning of transaction cost economics. In this paper we will follow the new institutional economic approach. I en transaction cost blew on organizations can De lave Into two groups. Horst, motivation cost, which deals particularly with costs of opportunistic behavior and agency cost (Williamson, 1975, Jensen and Neckline, 1976) Second, coordination cost, which deals with costs of information, costs of coordination and costs of measurement (Stiller, 1961, Lucian and Demesne, 1972). With a well-working interface transfers occur smoothly, but sometimes the transaction encounters friction due to conflicts between the parties involved. This friction can lead to delays, breakdowns and other malfunctions and is in economics termed transaction cost. The new institutional economic approach argues that all human interaction is characterized by a high degree of uncertainty (North, 1990). Institutions are therefore a way of reducing uncertainty and thereby transaction costs of trade. Furthermore, institutions are, as an extension of motivation cost theory, created by people with different bargaining power and not for the sake of efficiency, which makes some more efficient than others. Inefficient institutions can result in stagnant economies due to path dependency, which can lead to the lack of acknowledgement of property rights by states. Such environments can lead increased transaction cost and diminish the incentives to invest in socially profitable businesses. North therefore argue that the key to economic growth is efficient property rights, which moreover depends on political efficiency. In Institutions (1991) North, focuses further upon three elements of transaction cost: measurement cost, level of globalization and the amount of bargaining at the margin. It appears, however, that North have found a simplification and new applicability for these theories on state owned institutions and its relation to economic growth. Even Hough no clear-cut distinction exists between institutions and organizations, we have chosen to adapt Norths (1991) definition of institutions as the rules of the game and organizations as the different players. Further we adapt a sociological view on actions in markets, which conceptualizes Flintiness institutional framework related to the relationship between state and firms in the development of an economy. His main findings relate to how politics in markets work during various stages of market development-formation, stability and transformation (Fleeting 1996:656). As result we move away from the traditional institutional sociology of the early social scientists such as Clinics (1946) and later, DiMaggio and Powell (1991), and Scott (1995), and moves toward economic institutionalism. The main point however, is that we adapt an understanding of how modern states must create an institutional framework for a well functioning business system, and as such institutions are necessary as preconditions for economic growth. Theoretical framework and generation of hypothesis Inspired by North and Flintiness definitions of institutions, we assume that companies cannot operate in a Brazil without collective sets of rules and governing Interaction. In order to conclave economic gar town Brazil must odometer create an institutional framework, which supports the economic actors. Further the institutions in Brazil must structure political, economic and social interaction and set up norms. Our central hypothesis is therefore that the stage of development of the institutional environment in Brazil is crucial in order to develop sustainable economic growth, by reducing transaction cost of doing business and thus establish incentives faced by economic actors. Hypothesis 1. The level of economic growth in Brazil is dependent on the stage of placement in the institutional environment. There is strong empirical support for the proposition that institution matter (Franken Roomer, 1999; Guacamole et al, 2001). One example of this is presented in the paper Institutions rule (Radio et al. 2004) which explores the relationship between integration, institutions and geography with income. The findings show that the quality of institutions is more important than any others factors related to income levels. There is however little agreement on their relative importance and the causality of the link when it comes to increase economic growth. In the voluminous iterate on this subject, there are several failed attempts to discover unique institutional designs with encountering effective institutional outcomes. (Houseman et al. AAA), Since there are strong arguments favoring that there is no unique mapping from function to form It is futile to look for encountering empirical regularities that link specific legal rules to economic outcomes. What works will depend on local constraints and opportunities. (Radio, 2004:9) The aim of this paper is therefore to come up with contingent correlations or institutional prescription that are limited to the prevailing characteristics of Brazil. We thus try to extend the previous literature by exploring the development of the different elements of the institutional environment in order to discover which institutions that have been crucial for the economic growth in the case of Brazil. In order to investigate the relative importance of the different institution in Brazil it is necessary t o define more precisely what the institutional environment consists of. Traditionally the institutional environment in a country is made up of and measured by the ability to make investors feel secure about their property rights, the rule of away prevails, private incentives are aligned with social objectives, monetary and fiscal policies are grounded in solid macroeconomic institutions, idiosyncratic risks are appropriately mediated through social insurance, and citizens have recourse to civil liberties and political representation (Radio, 2004) To separate and distinguish between the institutional factors we adapt the institutional framework presented in John Dunning Institutional reform, foreign direct investment, and European transition economies (Dunning, 2005) and Foreign Investment location and institutional development in transition economies (Bean et. Al, 2006). These papers have developed an institutional framework consisting of three generic groups of variables namely: policy framework, economic determinants and business facilitation. The thre e groups should be viewed as institutional spheres containing Institutionally related determinants, wanly all alms at recalling transaction cost In Brazil and thus establish incentives faced by economic actors. First, the policy framework addresses institutionally related determinants that are under directly control of the government in Brazil. This is arguably the most important institutional sphere as it covers central aspects of institutions such as the rule of law and enhancement of property rights (North, 1991). It consists of institutions that provide economic and political stability, international agreements on FDA and taxes (Dunning, 2005), monetary and fiscal polices (Radio, 2004) and rules regarding competition (Fleeting, 1996). There are strong theoretical and empirical evidence connecting these institutions with transaction cost, thus we hypothesis that a positive development in the policy framework will result in a positive development in the economic growth in Brazil. Hypothesis AAA The level of economic growth in Brazil is dependent on the stage of development in the policy framework Second, the economic determinants cover institutions related to market opportunities, resource endowment and the availability and cost of labor (Dunning, 2005). It can be argued that these determinants depend on the underlying incentive structure and enforcement procedures, but if the institutional system in Brazil fails to provide the economic actors with qualified labor and necessary resources transaction cost will go up. Another aspect which gives support for this argument is hat a well developed infrastructure eases the means of communication and therefore eliminates and lowers, spatial transaction cost (Dunning, 2005). Thus, we propose that an increasing quality in the economic determinants of Brazil will result in a positive development in economic growth Hypothesis b The level of economic growth in Brazil is dependent on the stage of development in the economic determinants Third, there are strong arguments in favor of the notion that business-facilitating institutions such as the bank systems and other finance institutions also play an important role for the economic growth in Brazil. This because progress in establishing financial infrastructure and capital markets reduces transaction costs for Brazilian financial services, such as the payment system. (Bean et al, 2006) In addition customers have easier access to bank credit, which again can increase the demand for consumer goods that often are bought on credit (Bean et al, 2006). Moreover, it facilitates access to complementary local finance, which can reduce investors exposure to exchange rate risk. Institutions related to infrastructural support service and a well function banking and financing system are thus necessary n the establishment of incentives for economic actors in Brazil. Hypothesis c The level of economic growth in Brazil is dependent on the stage of development in business facilitation I I Hypothesis I Construct I Data source I(appendix 1) environment rating (10=high) development I I Hypothesis, construct and measurement bib I Predicted effect I Variable definition I Institutional lover business Alleluia 1 1 I (Unsighted average) (10=high) (10=good) I Policy I Tax regime rating (10=good) I Political environment rating 2008 I framework I Policy towards private enterprise rating Macroeconomic environment rating (10=high) I Foreign trade and exchange regime rating Policy environment for foreign investment rating (10=good) 1 bib I Economic determinants I + I Market opportunities rating I Labor market rating (10=good) I Infrastructure rating (10=good) 1 ICC I Business facilitation 1+ I Real effective exchange rate (Cop-based) I Financing rating I Ell-J Scientific Research Design 1 Methods of empirical analysis GAP is a commonly used indicator for economic growth and our analysis is based upon a dataset consisting of the percentage change in real GAP, over previous year % real change pa) fugues in Brazil from 1995 to 2007 and GAP (% real change pa) estimates from 2007-2012 (XIII). In order to explore any relationships between our selected variables and GAP (% real change pa) a regression model will be built. LEN GAP (% real change pa) = boo+ bal Real effective exchange rate (Cop-based) + be overall business environment rating+ ? . The precise definition, form and source of the variables used in our analysis are presented in table 1, which also summarizes the predicted effects of each independent variable on GAP in Brazil. All possible significant combinations will be valuated including isolating each single variable against the dependent variable in order to identify any possible relationship. The descriptive statistics of each variable are presented in the appendix 2. 2 construct measurement AT Independent variables Our measure of development in the overall institutional environment that is used to test hypothesis 1 is based on an aggregate of series of indicators of institutional quality constructed by the Economist Intelligence Unit (XIII). The Ell-J has constructed and Business Environmental Index derived from ten broad determinants of institutional quality. These determinants are essentially a composite of data and opinions taken from a series of business surveys conducted by Ell-J it self. Each of these determinants is reported on a 1-10 scale with higher numbers indicating a more business friendly institutional environment. For the next propositions, we employ the indices separately. The survey has a time span from 1995 to 2012 and consists of 13 variables each consisting of 1 5 observations. From 2007 and beyond are estimate. For the next hypothesis we employ the variables individually. Presentation of results Table 2 I Correlation independent variables and GAP (% real change pa) I Predicted effects Variable definition I Significance I II 1,110 1,183 I Policy towards private enterprise rating (10=good) 1. 263 rating (10=high) I Macroeconomic environment 1. 080 I Foreign trade and exchange regime rating (10=good) 1,155 I Policy environment for foreign investment rating (10=good) determinants I + 1. 249 1. 220 1,126 | . 392 I Economic I Market opportunities rating (10=high) 1,112 1,100 Discussion of results It is difficult proving a statistical meaningful relationship based on econometric tool between institutions and GAP. There are some general problems to our model that loud be accounted for statistically that are beyond the scope of this paper. This is especially related to ten vitality AT ten model winner ten sample size Is problematic. Additionally, the reverse correlation between the variables (nonentity) also plays an important role. The scope of the study should also be taken into consideration, which makes it difficult to infer about this more complex relationship. Here we could be discussing a selection bias, both country and respondent and variable specific. This is a threat to the valid estimation of the general causality between the dependent and the independent variables. It is also known that there is a relationship between these institutional based on former studies of institutional economics (North 1990; North, 1991; Fleeting 1996; Mining 2007). In regards to the validity, construct validity could be discussed in this case, as it is based on interpretation of institutions. Furthermore, the interaction of selection, related to the explanatory variables could bias this study and how the respondents and their responses are correlated with institutions. Nonetheless, the limited time span of the study could be further discussed but more pressuring is history bias and whether other exogenous factors affecting the independent variable, could impact the model, as this could easily be thought to be the case in Brazil. Moreover, we do not know the design of the data gathering process, which could include instrumentation bias. Referring to questions formulation and what is measured, there might also be considerable hypothesis guessing. Referring to the fact that Ell-J respondents could be answering questions in regards to their conception, rather than the measurement purpose. This is threatening the external validity, nonetheless the internal consistency of the questions is also an issue as questions could be overlapping. In line with conclusions from previous studies done on this subject, as a determinant for why econometric models are difficult or lacking in explanation (Houseman, Bibb; Rid, 2004). Tests often imply the interdependence between institutional predictors, which makes it hard to distinguish between the institutional dynamics and economic environment. Radio (2004) is especially critical to this and he has addressed a very central point, which is also relevant to this study, arguing that investors often rate institutional quality high when the economy is doing well. Thereby creating causation that would only be perception based. Whether it is effects of institutions that are measured the causation will still be evident. Furthermore, the nonentity with GAP, makes it a complex web that needs to be dismantled before meaningful results can be given, if possible at all with this type of study. Additionally, effects of institutions are a better estimator rather than framed proxies, consistent with argumentation in (Houseman et al, 2005). The explanation could also be that there is interdependency between different institutional parameters, which is evident from previous research. But how much is related to actual correlation between variables and how much is related to measurement difficulties will also be an issue to the validity of this paper. Nonetheless, the meaning derived from this of experiment. An additional explanation for why the explanatory power of our econometrics is limited as they often point in the right direction but needs to be explored further. (Houseman et al, Bibb) Moreover, policy erects are oaten veldts on a long-term Dados Ana are oaten Indolent ex-ante rather than ex-post. (Redbrick, 2004). This relates to the aspect of data-lags also being a subject to the validity as institutional improvements in a country do not always go hand in hand, the visible results could be shown later, emphasizing difficulties capturing this relationship in any meaningful way. In addition, we do not know if GAP improvements occur because of institutional improvements or the other way around (Radio, 2004). Bowwows and Collins (2003) have statistically tested aspects of institutional theory, and found a correlation between growth and the quality of governing institutions, such as law and order, absence of corruption, and protection of property rights (Bowwows Collins 2003). However, the link is not always apparent and institutional quality should be stressed in this context. But other factors relating to the second best theories also play an important role in a more dynamic context such as Business sectors, information spillovers, Human Capital (Houseman et al, AAA) Furthermore, it is still important to look at institutions in a country specific perspective as differences in geography, factor abundance and, governance structure and linkages. (Houseman et al, AAA) These factors differ from country to country even though economic growth is related to institutions. Econometric cross sectional analysis as a tool to reach an ultimate conclusion on the causes for growth, is therefore problematic. The link between the second best interactions viewed very simplistically is government interactions and reforms. These are difficult to measure and identify, however, the impact of reforms can be reasonably estimated. Reforms do not always live up to the purpose as it should be the right reforms suitable for the circumstances. (Houseman et al, 2005). Validity issues discussed above are rampant in our model, which pose a threat to the reliability of the model. Many models have been built to demonstrate the relationship between institutional environments. The problem is more related to finding an appropriate tool to identify this relationship rather than concluding that the relationship does not exist, or that a relationship is as simplistic as our econometric model can explain which is consistent with that of a more dynamic and holistic approach. The institutional environment in Brazil has improved throughout the time period. The institutional scores from Ell-J (appendix) illustrate that there have been some improvements, but still the growth in GAP is low, compared to the expectations and attention. Recently however, the growth has come up to a more sustainable level to an annual average GAP of 2. 7 % from 2002 until 2007 (DB Research 2006). [pick] I en presidency AT Lull In 2002 veils some explanatory power In relation to economic growth. Since Lull got into presidency in 2002 several economical and political reforms has been set into action. These reforms have tried to overcome some of the problems that, such as reforming the pension system, the bolas familial reform which subsidies poor households, obligatory health checks and keeping children in school (Mining, Bibb). These reforms were initiated with the intension to stabilize Brazil both economically and socially. Due to implications in the structure of Braziers political system, implementing reforms is time challenging and the reforms tend to be extremely gradual in Brazil, mainly because of the fragmented political system, and the strong majority it requires in the congress to implement reforms (DB 2006). Exertions with corruption have also been problematic with framed budget capital and deterioration of public services in order to stop the implementation of reforms (Goldman Sacks 2006). Braziers political system gives the president more influence in he macroeconomic policies. This is important as they keep the macro economic environment stable. The implications of the Brazil governance system affect the initiation of reforms designed to improve economic growth, thus staggering the economic development. Further it is important to take Brazil multifaceted society with a high degree of inequality into consideration. The low quality on the education system and huge differences in income, could both be important reason for Braziers lack of high educated human capital, which some researchers suggest is an supporting factor for economic growth (Hellmann, 2004). Ferreira et al. (2006) paper suggests that it is specifically education of the head of the households that is the most important determinant for the inequality in Brazil (Ferreira et al. 2006).

Radio Broadcasting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Radio Broadcasting - Essay Example After the American government stepped in to regulate this air traffic of signals by allotting licensed frequencies to the private operators, the era of commercial broadcasting came into being and led to a perceptual shift in the American culture. The men and boys saw the experimentation with radio as a symbol of masculine prerogative, brought it into their homes, and introduced it to the other family members. The listeners discovered the new face of their individual identities, closely linked to the idea of cohesive nationhood, through broadcasts of diverse entertainment programs and news items. Gradually, commercial reasons led to the introduction of advertisements interlaced with the main items, as well as standardization of broadcast timings, for most of the programs. With this it was possible for listeners to tune in to multiple broadcasts by adjusting their own schedules accordingly. The network programs allowed people to sit and listen to their favorite serials, like the women's serial drama nick named "soap opera", at the same time everyday or every week. This created a sort of customer loyalty as far as the programs were concerned, and a gradual shift in the cultural habits of the audience. The advertisements which were interwoven along with the main program also created a loyalty towards the products which were advertised. These factors permanently altered the social habits of the American society. Impact of Radio on large media companies: With the rise of compulsive consumerism brought about by the radio transmission of popular programs and advertisements, large media companies like NBC, and CBS sensed big business opportunities. The individual broadcasting stations got affiliated to national networks or were absorbed by big broadcasting chains, so that they could benefit from the economies of scale. The broadcast time was gradually increasing, By the middle of 1930's, many stations were using an airtime of 12 to 18 hours per day. This made it necessary for the broadcasters to fill the expanded airtime with variations of program types already developed. The large companies like NBC and CBS, also had to develop newer varieties of programs, like live performances by orchestras, talk shows, soap operas, and afternoon serial dramas. For this, they had to develop their own recording studios. Transcription, or pre-recorded music was also in vogue. To cut costs, these large companies bought the prerecorded music from transcription firms. The big companies were better placed financially, so they could command better quality of transcriptions, and also could afford to hire the best performers for their live shows. Although music was dominating the air time, emphasis by the network broadcasters was on transcriptions and not on classical music, whereas NBC could manage to broadcast a symphony orchestra with eminent musicians like the conductor of New York Philharmonic for many years, as opposed to the network operator who were mainly using transcriptions of music performances by local artistes. Similarly, CBS hired the services of actors, writers, poets etc to continue with high quality dramas and talk shows. Thus, the large media firms, who entered the broadcasting market, were able to continue with